Mathematics, Geomancy, Arabic, Ilm Al Raml, Musa al-Khwarizmi, Sylvester James Gates, Thomas Fuller

Mathematics, Geomancy, Arabic,  Ilm Al Raml, Musa al-Khwarizmi, Sylvester James Gates, Thomas Fuller, Final Part

Arabic Geomancy

Ilm Al Raml (the science of the sands)

Ilm al-ghayb (the occult sciences)

Ilm al-Ḥurūf (the science of letters)

It is essential to situate mathematical concepts within atypical cultural and historical contexts that essentialize mathematical thought as embodied expressions of human endeavours. There is an ongoing investigation into the mathematical structures underlying an ancient historical and cultural divination practice known as ilm al-raml (Arabic translation of sand science). Principled by sociohistorical and sociocultural lenses, the study employs an ethnomathematical methodology. 

Ilm Al Raml (the science of the sands)

Geomancy is a method of divination that interprets markings on the ground or the patterns formed by tossed handfuls of soil, rocks, or sand. The most prevalent form of divinatory geomancy involves interpretation. Interpretation commences with a series of 16 figures formed by a randomized process including recursion, followed by analyzing them, often augmented with astrological interpretations. King Richard II thought geomancy was a greater discipline that included philosophy, science, and alchemic elements.

Richard II, also known as Richard of Bordeaux, was King of England from 1377 until 1399. He was the son of Edward the Black Prince, Prince of Wales, and Joan, Countess of Kent. Wikipedia

Born: 6 January 1367, Bordeaux, France 

Ilm Al Raml (The Science of the Sands) Binary codes and Elements

Died: 14 February 1400, Pontefract Castle, Pontefract

Siblings: Edward of Angoulême, John Holland, 1st Duke of Exeter, MORE

Spouse: Isabella of Valois (m. 1396–1400), Anne of Bohemia (m. 1382–1394)

Parents: Edward the Black Prince, Joan of Kent

Deposed dates: 1377, 29 September 1399

Many people from different social classes practised geomancy in the Middle Ages. Geomancy was a popular form of divination in Europe, particularly during the Middle Ages, except in Africa and Asia. Renaissance, although in Renaissance magic, geomancy was classified as one of the seven "forbidden arts", along with necromancy, hydromancy, aeromancy, pyromancy, chiromancy (palmistry), and scapulimancy. 

Ilm Al Raml (the science of the sands) Elements

The word geomancy from Late Greek *γεωμαντεία *geōmanteía translates literally to (earth divination); it is a calque translation of the Arabic term ilm al-raml or the "science of the sand". Earlier Greek renditions of this word borrowed the Arabic word raml ("sand"), rendering it as rhamplion or rabolion. Other Arabic names for geomancy include khatt al-raml and darb al-raml. 

The reference in Hermetic texts to the mythical Ṭumṭum al-Hindi potentially points to an Indian origin, although Stephen Skinner  thinks this unlikely. Having an Arabic origin is most likely because the expansive trade routes of Arabian merchants[when?] would facilitate the exchange of culture and knowledge.

One of the Symbol of the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn

European scholars and universities started translating Arabic texts and Treatises in the early Middle Ages, including those on geomancy. Isidore of Seville (560 – 636 AD) lists geomancy with other methods of divination – including pyromancy, hydromancy, aeromancy, and necromancy – without describing its application or methods. The poem Experimentarius, attributed to Bernardus Silvestris, who wrote in the middle of the 12th century, was a verse translation of a work on astrological geomancy. 

One of the first discourses on geomancy translated into Latin was the Ars Geomantiae of Hugh of Santalla (fl. early 12th century). By this point, geomancy must have been an established divination system in Arabic-speaking areas of Africa and the Middle East. However, archaeological, oral and symbolic evidence counter the Arab originator assertion. 

Sikidy Board Hierarchy

Other translators, such as Gerard of Cremona, also produced new translations of geomancy that incorporated astrological elements and techniques ignored by many.  

More European scholars studied and applied geomancy, writing substantial Treatises. Henry Cornelius Agrippa (1486–1535 AD), Christopher Cattan (La Géomancie du Seigneur Christofe de Cattan (1558 AD), and John Heydon (1629 – 1667 AD) produced oft-cited and well-studied Treatises on geomancy, along with other philosophers, occultists, and theologians until the 17th century, when interest in occultism and divination began to dwindle due to the rise of the Scientific Revolution and the Age of Reason.

Geomancy underwent a revival in the 19th century when renewed interest in the occult arose due to the works of Robert Thomas Cross (1850–1923 AD) and Edward Bulwer-Lytton (1803–1873 AD). Franz Hartmann published his text, The Principles of Astrological Geomancy (English translation: 1889) spurred new interest in the divination system. 

Based on this and a few older texts, the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn (founded in 1887 AD) began the task of recollecting knowledge on geomancy along with other occult subjects, like Aleister Crowley (1875–1947 AD) published his works that integrated various occultistic systems of knowledge. However, due to the short time, the members of the Golden Dawn desired to learn, practice, and teach the old occult arts, many elaborate systems of divination and ritual had to be compressed, losing much in the process. In effect, they had reduced geomancy from a complex art of interpretation and skill in recognizing patterns to looking up predefined answers based on pairs of figures.

Generating Geomantic Charts

Geomancy requires the geomancer to create sixteen lines of points or marks without counting, creating sixteen random numbers. Without taking note of the number of points made, the geomancer provides the seemingly random mechanism needed for most forms of divination. Once produced, the geomancer marks off two by two until either one or two points remain in the line. Mathematically, this is the same as drawing two dots if the number is even or one if the number is odd. 

Taking these leftover points in groups of four, they form the first four geomantic figures and form the basis for the regeneration of the remaining figures. Once finished, the "inspired" portion of the geomantic reading expires; what remains is algorithmic calculation.

Traditionally, geomancy requires a surface of sand and the hands or a stick, but also equally well with a wax tablet and stylus or a pen and paper. In divination, ritualistic objects may or may not apply. When drawing marks or figures, geomancers proceed from right to left as a tradition from geomancy's origins, and it is not mandatory. Modern methods of geomancy include, in addition to the traditional ways: 

Random number generators or thrown objects; others include counting the eyes on potatoes. Some practitioners use specific cards,  each representing a single geomantic figure; in this case, only four cards are drawn after shuffling. Specified machines are needed to generate completed geomantic charts.

The figures are recorded into a specialized table, known as the shield chart, which illustrates the recursive processes reminiscent of the Cantor set that forms the figures. The first four figures are the matres or Mothers and form the basis for the rest of the figures in the chart; they occupy the first four houses in the upper right-hand corner such that the first Mother is to the far right, the second Mother is to her left, and so on (continuing the right-to-left tradition).

The following four figures, the filiae, or Daughters, are formed by rearranging the lines used in the Mothers: the first Daughter is formed by taking the first line from the first, second, third, and fourth Mothers in order and rearranging them to be the first Daughter's first, second, third, and fourth lines, respectively. The process is done similarly for the second Daughter using the second line from the Mother, and so on. The Daughters are placed in the next four houses in order on the same row as the Mothers.

After the formation of eight matres and filiae, the generation of four nepotes (or Nieces) is by adding those pairs of figures that rest above the houses of the respective Niece. Including the first and second Mothers added to form the first Niece, the third and fourth Mothers added to become the second Niece, and so on. 

Here, addition involves summing the points in the respective lines of the parents. If the sum is an even number, the resulting figure's line will have two points; if the sum is odd, it is one point. Conceptually, this is the same procedure in mathematical logic as the exclusive or, where a line with two points is used instead of "false" and with one point instead of "true".

The calculation of the binary numbers of the four nepotes, the two testes (or Witnesses) is the same as the nepotes: the first and second Nieces form the Right Witness, and the third and fourth Nieces form the Left Witness. Creating the index or judge technique is the same as the Witnesses. A sixteenth figure, the Reconciler or superiudex, is also generated by adding the Judge and the First Mother. Nowadays, it is seen as extraneous and a "backup figure" in recent times.

Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi

D’Ambrosio (1985, 1999 ) and Knijnik’s (2000) 

Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi

Muḥammad ibn Mūsā al-Khwārizmī, or al-Khwarizmi, was a Persian polymath from Khwarazm who produced vastly influential works in mathematics, astronomy, and geography. 

He was appointed around 820 AD as the astronomer and head of the library of the House of Wisdom in Baghdad. 

Born: Khwarazm

Died: Baghdad, Iraq

Full name: Muḥammad ibn Mūsā al-Khwārizmī

Era: Islamic Golden Age (Abbasid era)

Influenced: Abu Kamil

Main interests: Mathematics, astronomy, geography

Fractals

Fractals are the repetition of similar patterns at ever-diminishing scales. Fractal geometry has emerged as one of the most exciting frontiers on the border between mathematics and information technology. It is in many of the swirling patterns produced by computer graphics.

Fractals

Sylvester James Gates

When physicist James Gates discovered recurring codes that dictate the behaviour of every sub-atomic element in the universe, he named it Adinkra. 

Sylvester James Gates Jr. (born on 15/12/1950), known as S. James Gates Jr. or Jim Gates, is an American theoretical physicist who works on supersymmetry, supergravity, and superstring theory. 

Sylvester James Gates

Jim Gates holds the Clark Leadership Chair in Science with the physics department at the University of Maryland College of Computer, Mathematical, and Natural Sciences. 

Gates is an affiliate with the University of Maryland School of Public Policy. 

He served under former President Barack Obama. 

He was a member of the Council of Advisors on Science and Technology.

Thomas Fuller

Thomas Fuller (1710 – December 1790), also known as Negro Demus and the Virginia Calculator, was an enslaved African renowned for his mathematical abilities. Born in Africa, likely between present-day Liberia and Benin, Fuller was enslaved and shipped to America in 1724 AD at age 14. He became the legal property of Elizabeth Cox of Alexandria, Virginia. 

Thomas Fuller

Despite his mathematical skills, Fuller needed to be more literate. Ethnomathematics researcher Ron Eglash theorizes that Fuller could have been Bassari, comparing his abilities to their mathematical traditions. Before colonialism, the Bassari used to have specialists trained in the memorization of sums.

Bassari People 

A Bassari Woman

The Bassari people are African people living in Senegal, Ghana, Gambia, Guinea and Guinea-Bissau. The total population is between 10,000 and 30,000. The Bassari mainly resided on either side of the Senegal-Guinea border southwest of Kedougou, Kédougou Region. 

These areas are referred to in French as Pays-Bassari, or liyan in the Bassari language. The Bassari speak a Tenda language, o-niyan, and call themselves a-liyan, pl. bi-liyan. Most of the group are animists, with a significant minority of Christians (both Catholic and Protestant). 

The Bassari have close relations with the Fula people centred locally in the nearby hills of the Fouta Djallon.

The end of the final part. Other Publications: Ancient Mathematics, Occultism and Astrology Part 1 King Solomon of Israel, Vs, Pharaoh, Amenemope The Immaculate Conception, an amazing deception Ifa, Sacred Geometry, Tetrahedron, Odu, Portals, Points The Baptismal Ceremony of The Gospel Of The Egyptians To learn more: A Study Finds that Yorubas Are Genetically 99.9% Igbo. There is a true story behind the Zombie legends. Ogham line alphabets, African Origin. This video presentation concentrated on prehistoric and ancient cultures in Africa and elsewhere. Namely, Gabon, Zambia, Nigeria, Mali, Chad, Congo, Khem, South Africa and Ethiopia. Gnostic Bible, The 34 Hidden Letters and Messages in Bismillah Al-Rahman Al-Rahim, Islamic Mystical Literature: Initiation and Prophecies of Djehuiti, Thoth, or Hermes and Atum

Ancient Mathematics, Ifa, Chinese, Sikidy and Geomancy Divination Systems, Part 2

Ancient Mathematics, Ifa, Chinese, Sikidy and Geomancy Divination Systems Part 2

Sacred Geometry is a complex and sophisticated science that requires objective study and subjective meditation. The most crucial shape in understanding possession by Ela is the tetrahedron. If you turn a sphere into a three-sided pyramid with the base at 19.5 degrees below the equator and the apex at the North Pole, the result should be a tetrahedron.

Illustration of Odu Portal Points

To complete Odu patterns, a Babalawo needed two tetrahedrons, with the apex of the top one on the North Pole and the bottom one on the South Pole, generating eight portal points. The Babalawos will then employ the pure philosophy of Ifa to decipher the portal points meaning.

To open portals, place the second three-sided pyramid inside a sphere with the base at 19.5 degrees above the equator and the apex at the South Pole. In Ifa, these portals or Odu means womb. Each point where the pyramid makes contact with the circumference of the sphere is a portal for Odu, which is the point of entry for light from the Invisible realm into the Visible Realm (Orun and Aye, heaven and earth). 

Illustration of Yoruba Multiplication Technique

The top tetrahedron and bottom pyramid counter-rotate in 255 of the basis of energy patterns rotate in opposite directions to create gravity. The blueprint called Eji Ogbe is anti-gravitational because both pyramids rotate in the same direction, eliminating polar tension. This pattern is one of the top secrets of alchemy. The remaining 240 Odus out of 256 are minor odus called Amulus (Admixtures). 

In the process of divination, Ifa priests employ the use of a complex system of signs/codes. These codes are widely studied, and to foster in-depth understanding, researchers have considered them vis-a-vis their relationship with other fields of study, for instance, carried out code characteristics of Ifa signatures akin to binary operation in computer science. 

Amulu

The need for further study of these codes is supported by those who opined that despite several studies devoted to it in recent times, Ifa remains an intractable subject for many, a bewildering cellar of ancient wisdom, and this is not only due to the complex web of fetish associated with it but also to the paraphernalia and elaborate divination procedure incidental to life.

According to Ifa divination mythology, the generation of the signature codes occurs during divination. These codes, in conjunction with the entire Ifa divination system, possesses a large spectrum of properties that demands exploration still, only a few of these properties have, and it led to a lack of basic understanding of the working of the divination system and a high level of misconception about Ifa. Ifa thus becomes unattractive, considered obsolete and evil in some parts of African society and beyond. 

Chinese Divination System

In the middle of Figure 1 is the symbol of Tàijí, "the Extreme Ultimate". Tàijí is the unity from which everything originates: it splits into duality, the duality splits in four, and the four splits in eight. 

Figure 1

The Taoist universe consists of an infinity of binary data - yins and yangs constantly turning into each other. The only unchanging thing is the ultimate principle itself. 

Trigram symbols are everywhere. The flag of South Korea contains four symmetrical three-bit binary numbers. 

In the Feng Shui system (mega-fashionable in the West nowadays), you may even hang binary numbers on your walls because you believe in their magical power of modifying the energies inside the building.

Three bits is the smallest binary number that allows a "true RGB palette" (one bit for each red, green and blue component). 

Incidentally, the Chinese trigrams are also traditionally associated with colours. The image below Figure 2 presents the six-bit binary combinations in two different arrangements: an eight-by-eight matrix (in ascending binary order) and a "xiantian"-ordered circle. 

The figure was composed in the 11th century by Shào Yong, the famous philosopher and oracle who believed it was the original "xiantian" order in which the legendary emperor, Fú Xi, discovered the hexagrams millennia ago. Centuries later, the German philosopher G.W. Leibniz received a copy of this figure from Jesuit missionaries trying to convert Chinese people to Christianity.

Figure 2

Leibniz was so astonished by this figure that he wrote the first European text about binary mathematics (Explication de l'arithmetique binaire, 1705 AD). Leibniz later wrote some interesting stuff about the relationship of binary numbers to the very essence of the universe, but that's a different story. Yì Jing ("I Ching") is an ancient book with sixty-four hexagrams and associates them with names and mysterious verses. 

It is basically an oracular handbook ("Give me a random number, and I'll tell you what lies ahead"). However, due to its highly-honoured status in Chinese culture, its "message" has been thoroughly examined during the millennia. The properties of the six-bit binary numbers are examined as whole entities (symmetry, yin/yang constitution, visual shape) and in small pieces (the properties of every sub-trigram and the properties of each bit separately). 

In the Pythagorean numerology, natural numbers had mystical properties and even personalities, including similar numerology applied to binary combinations in ancient China. In the Yì Jing divination, each line of the result can be either static or changing (the resulting hexagram turning into some other hexagram). 

Figure 3

It gives 4096 possible readings. A man named Chiao Kan actually wrote 4096 rhymed verses to describe every possible transition. After this, philosophers started to speculate about interchanging evolutions. 

In the words of Shú Xi, if from the 12-line diagrams we continue generating undivided and divided lines, eventually we come to 24-line totalling 16,777,216 changes. 

Taking 4,096 and multiplying it by itself also gives this sum. Expanding, we do not know where it ultimately ends. 

Although we cannot see its usefulness, it is sufficient to show that the Way of Change is inexhaustible. No one was prolific in a lifetime enough to write out all the 16,777,216 second-order transitions. 

However, what makes the six-bit code especially divine even for modern people is its application in the genetic code that describes the hardware of every living organism on this planet. (In fact, a "genetic byte" consists of three symbols from an alphabet of four, but the amount of information is exactly the same).

Rhind Papyrus

The Rhind Mathematical Papyrus is one of the best-known examples of ancient Egyptian mathematics. Alexander Henry Rhind, a Scottish antiquarian, purchased the Papyrus in 1858 AD in Luxor, Egypt, and named it after him. The awareness of the whereabouts of the Rhind Papyrus became known during illegal excavations in or near the Ramesseum. 

Rhind Papyrus

It dates to around 1550 BC.

Author: August Eisenlohr

Date: Second Intermediate Period of Egypt

Language(s): Egyptian (Hieratic)

Place of origin: Thebes

Moscow Mathematical Papyrus 

Moscow Mathematical Papyrus

The Moscow Mathematical Papyrus, also named the Golenishchev Mathematical Papyrus after its first non-Egyptian owner, Egyptologist Vladimir Golenishchev, is an ancient Egyptian mathematical papyrus containing several problems in arithmetic, geometry, and algebra. 

Owner: Vladimir Golenishchev

Date: 13th dynasty, Second Intermediate Period of Egypt

Euclid

Euclid was an ancient Greek mathematician active as a geometer and logician. Credited with the accolade of the father of geometry, he is chiefly known for the Elements treatise, which established the foundations of geometry that largely dominated the field until the early 19th century.

Died: Alexandria, Egypt

Nationality: Greek

Influenced: Isaac Newton, Apollonius of Perga, and more

Inspired by Pythagoras, Thales of Miletus, Eudoxus of Cnidus, Hippocrates of Chios, and Theaetetus.

Sikidy Divination System of Madagascar

The study of divination and divination systems, particularly in so-called non-technological societies, presents unusual problems that challenge the core of rational and epistemic thought. Even so, the strenuous efforts in researching cultural genres, such as religion, magic, and myth, fall short of distinguishing constituent theoretical and ontological underpinnings of divinatory principles. 

Sikidy's Order

Ifa ((West Africa), Haiti, Cuba, Brazil, Caribbean, America)) the four-tablet system (South Africa) and Sikidy (Madagascar). 

The first step in Sikidy is to arbitrate four columns of four bits (a four-by-four matrix). 

The arbitration of one bit usually happens by grabbing a handful of seeds from a bag and removing two at a time until only one or two are left. 

The remaining seeds must be placed properly on the Sikidy board. 

Sikidy processing gives a new meaning to the concept of (random number seed). 

The random columns ( Mother-Sikidy) are in the upper right corner. 

The values of the columns from right to left, bottom to top, are 1010, 1001, 1011, and 0010. 

The next thing to do is to form the Daughter-Sikidy by rotating and flipping the matrix.

Mother Sikidy

The rightmost column of the Mother-Sikidy (bottom to top) becomes the top row (left to right) of the Daughter-Sikidy, and so forth. 

Our Daughter-Sikidy (placed to the left of the Mother-Sikidy) is 0110, 1101, 0000, and 0111. 

The rest is pure binary arithmetic. 

The columns below the Mother-Sikidy and Daughter-Sikidy are formed by eXclusive-ORing each pair of columns: (1010 XOR 1001 = 0011), (1011 XOR 0010 = 1001), (0110 XOR 1101 = 1011) and (0000 XOR 0111 = 0111). 

Daughter Sikidy

As for the witnesses, it is (0011 XOR 1001 = 1010) and (1011 XOR 0111 = 1100). The Xor operator might look complicated but it is simple, for example, if you add (1010 to 1100 = (2110) we have to change the two, which is even to zero (0110) the binary number of the judge).

The image above shows an example of a completed Sikidy board. 

This process is repeated to all the new lines until only one column is left (the bottom column, 0110 in the example). 

We now have a complete Sikidy tableau, right to left (1010, 1001, 1011, 0010, 0110, 1101, 0000, and 0111) Mother Sikidy, Daughter Sikidy (0011, 1001, 1011 and 0111), Witnesses (1010 and 1100) and the Judge (0110), what is left is the interpretation. 

Witnesses and the Judge

Each of the sixteen Sikidy binary values has meaning, and each memory slot has a designated definition. 

The Sikidy system was also adopted by Arabs (under the name of ilm Al-raml, the science of sand), and from Arabs, it even spread to Europe in the Middle Ages. 

The end of part 2 and the final part will follow soon. Other Publications: Ancient Mathematics, Occultism and Astrology Part 1 King Solomon of Israel, Vs, Pharaoh, Amenemope The Immaculate Conception, an amazing deception Ifa, Sacred Geometry, Tetrahedron, Odu, Portals, Points The Baptismal Ceremony of The Gospel Of The Egyptians To learn more: A Study Finds that Yorubas Are Genetically 99.9% Igbo. There is a true story behind the Zombie legends. Ogham line alphabets, African Origin. This video presentation concentrated on prehistoric and ancient cultures in Africa and elsewhere. Namely, Gabon, Zambia, Nigeria, Mali, Chad, Congo, Khem, South Africa and Ethiopia. Gnostic Bible, The 34 Hidden Letters and Messages in Bismillah Al-Rahman Al-Rahim, Islamic Mystical Literature: Initiation and Prophecies of Djehuiti, Thoth, or Hermes and Atum

Ancient Mathematics and Occultism

Ancient Mathematics, Occultism and Astrology Part 1

Most histories of mathematics devote only a few pages to Ancient Egypt and Northern Africa during the Middle Ages. Generally, they ignore the history of mathematics in Africa south of the Sahara and give the impression that this history either did not exist or, at least, is not knowable, traceable, or, stronger still, that there was no mathematics south of the Sahara. In history, to Europeans, even the Africanity of Egyptian mathematics is often denied or suffers eurocentric views of conceptions of both history and mathematics form the basis of such opinions. The definition of Mathematics according to the ancient Egyptians is as follows: Accurate method of investigation of the knowledge of all existing things and obscure secrets and mysteries. 

Occultism and Astrology

Arial view of Adam's Calendar

The oldest artificial structure on earth is in South Africa, known as Adam's Calendar and currently Enkis Calendar. The site is estimated to be around 75,000 years old, as dated by rock art in the area. Adams' Calendar. Sometimes referred to as "African Stonehenge", it predates both Stonehenge and the Great Pyramid of Giza by tens of thousands of years. Located in Mpumalanga, South Africa, it is a standing stone circle about 30 meters in diameter and estimated by some accounts to be more than 75,000 years old. Various astronomical alignments have been identified at the site, possibly the only example of a completely functional, reasonably intact megalithic stone calendar worldwide.

Scattered throughout the mountains of South Africa are thousands of stone circle ruins. 

The first estimate of the number of these ruins was made in 1891 by English explorer Theodore Bent. 

He estimated there were about 4,000 in this area of the world. 

By 1974 the estimate had risen to 20,000. 

Today, a researcher and authority on the subject, Michael Tellinger, has estimated the number of ancient stone ruins to be 100,000 or possibly much higher. 

This connected grid of circular ruins is engrossed in a seemingly never-ending expanse of ancient agricultural terraces surrounding the structures.

The Red Ochre Stone

The Red Ochre Tally Stone

This Red Ochre Stone has slashes that look like tally marks. It is one of two such stones recently found in the Blombos Cave in South Africa and is 77,000 years old, making them the oldest form of recorded counting ever discovered. To those who doubted it, Africa is indeed the cradle of humanity and women (if it is indeed a lunar tool) were quite advanced mathematicians 35,000 years ago, using calculators to make lunar calendars! 

Lembombo Bone Swaziland

Have you ever heard of the According to some researchers, It is the oldest known mathematical artefact in the world. It is even older than the Ishango bone. According to some researchers, it is the oldest known mathematical artefact in the world. Lembombo bone originated from a Border Cave, a rock shelter on the western scarp of the Lebombo Mountains near the border of South Africa and Swaziland (now Eswatini), in the 1970s. They uncovered the bone on the Eswatini side dated from 35,000 BC. It consists of 29 distinct notches, deliberately cut into a baboon fibula.

The bone is between 44,200 and 43,000 years old, according to 24 radiocarbon datings. It is far older than the Ishango bone, with which it is sometimes confused. Other notched bones are 80,000 years old, but it is unclear if the marks are merely decorative or have a functional meaning.

Lembombo Bone

According to The Universal Book of Mathematics, the Lebombo bone 29 slashes may have been a lunar phase counter. And that African women may have been the first mathematicians because keeping track of menstrual cycles requires a lunar calendar. However, the bone is broken at one end, so the 29 notches may or may not be a minimum number. In the cases of other notched bones, since found globally, there has been no consistent notch tally, many being in the 1–10 range. The Lebombo bone resembles a calendar used by the early men of the area, coming from the San clans of Namibia; this way of making tallies is still used by the San people today. 

Swaziland Map

It resembles a calendar used by the early men of the area, coming from the San clans of Namibia. These represent the earliest unambiguous evidence for modern human behaviour. An article in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (PNAS) on recent archaeological discoveries, Early evidence of San material culture represented by organic artefacts from Border Cave, South Africa, has shown that bone tools were already present 75,000 years ago and were used in San culture.

The Lebombo bone is a tool made of a baboon fibula with incised markings discovered in Border Cave in the Lebombo Mountains between South Africa and Eswatini. Changes in the section of the notches indicate different cutting edges, which the discoverer, Peter Beaumont, views as evidence, like other markings found in the world, during participation rituals.

The bone is between 44,200 and 43,000 years old, according to 24 radiocarbon datings. It is far older than the Ishango bone, with which it is sometimes confused. Other notched bones are 80,000 years old, but it is unclear if the marks are merely decorative or have a functional meaning.

Ishango Bone

The Ishango bone, discovered at the Fisherman Settlement of Ishango in the Democratic Republic of Congo, is a bone tool and possible mathematical device that dates to the Upper Paleolithic era. Perhaps the third oldest mathematical artefact to date. Ishango-Bone was unearthed in 1950 in the then-Belgian colony of the Congo (now the Democratic Republic of Congo). It was discovered by the Belgian anthropologist Jean de Heinzelin de Braucourt (1920-1998) and named after the region found. The bone, probably a fibula of a baboon, large cat, or other large mammal, has been dated to the Upper Paleolithic Period of human history, approximately 20,000-25,000 years ago. 

Ishango Bone

It is 10 cm long and bears an articulated, organized series of notches readily identifying it, to many observers, as a tally stick. However, its original purpose remains a subject of debate. The Ishango Bone is at the Museum of Natural Sciences in Brussels.

Museum of Natural Sciences, Royal Belgian Institute of Natural Sciences: Ishango Bone (2007-2009) or Ishango Bone (2001) Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History: Ishango Bone Alison S. Brooks, David M. Helgren. Dating and Context of Three Middle Stone Age Sites with Bone Points in the Upper Semliki Valley, Zaire, Science, New Series, vol. 268, no. 5210 (Apr. 28, 1995), pp. 548-553.

Most histories of mathematics devote only a few pages to Ancient Egypt and Northern Africa during the Middle Ages. Generally, they ignore the history of mathematics in Africa south of the Sahara and give the impression that this history either did not exist or, at least, is not knowable, traceable, or, still, that there was none at all south of the Sahara. In history, to Europeans, even the Africanity of Egyptian mathematics is often denied or suffers eurocentric views of conceptions of both history and mathematics form the basis of such opinions.

Ishango Bone

High in the mountains of Central Equatorial Africa, on the borders of Uganda and Zaire, lies Lake Edward, a source of the Nile. It is a small lake (about 30 miles by 60 miles). Though the area is sparsely populated today, approximately 25,000 (update from 9,000) years ago, by the shores of the lake lived a small community that fished, gathered, and grew crops. The settlement only existed a few hundred years before being buried in a volcanic eruption. The place where their remains were found (1960) has a name now given to these people - Ishango. Among their remains is the third oldest mathematical object in Africa.

Some say that the Ishango Bone is the oldest table of prime numbers. Marshack later concluded, based on his microscopic examination, that it represented a six-month lunar calendar. Professor Charles Finch sent dating information by email stating the following: The site where we found the Ishango Bone, re-dated by Alison Brooks more than a dozen years ago, was about 25,000 years old rather than the original estimate of 8,500 years. Proto-mathematics begins in Paleolithic Central and Southern Africa.

Ifa Algebra and Binary Codes

Ifa Algebra and Binary Codes

The Babalows use Odu to open a passage into the invisible (heaven) and earth, visible realms through tetrahedron angle points. The processes of generating Odu patterns require the application of Clifford algebra C1(8) and C1(8)xC1(8) = C1(16), representing the 16 Odus of Ifa. 

Over 12,000 years ago, indigenous Africans inherited the Binary Oracle Divination System, based on the square of 16=16x16=256 = 2^8 corresponding to the vertices of an 8-dimensional hypercube and the binary 2-choice Clifford algebra C1(8) and so to related ones such as C1(8)xC1(8) = C1(16), from Orunmila (god of writing and wisdom). Since the number of sub-hypercubes in an 8-dimensional hypercube is 6,561 =81x81=3^8, the Ifa Divination Systems has N=8 ternary 3-structures (6,561) and 2-structure (256).

Ifa Binary Code

In biological terms, this invocation unlocks the memory of the development of our fetus. This development mirrors the energy patterns found throughout nature. When Ifa initiates the experience of this memory, called Elerin Ipin (witness to creation). Simply put, this memory is an experiential understanding of life, death, transformation and rebirth as they replicate through generation and regeneration cycles.

This experience gives the Ifa initiate the vision to interpret the symbolic meaning of Ifa oral scripture. Each of these patterns contains an inherent lesson necessary to move consciousness to the next stage of development. The ability to use these patterns as medicine to treat physical, emotional and spiritual afflictions; was established on the capacity of the Ifa initiate going into possession of each of these. 

 The end of part 1 and part 2 will follow soon. Other Publications: King Solomon of Israel, Vs, Pharaoh, Amenemope The Immaculate Conception, an amazing deception Ifa, Sacred Geometry, Tetrahedron, Odu, Portals, Points The Baptismal Ceremony of The Gospel Of The Egyptians To learn more: A Study Finds that Yorubas Are Genetically 99.9% Igbo. There is a true story behind the Zombie legends. Ogham line alphabets, African Origin. This video presentation concentrated on prehistoric and ancient cultures in Africa and elsewhere. Namely, Gabon, Zambia, Nigeria, Mali, Chad, Congo, Khem, South Africa and Ethiopia. Gnostic Bible, The 34 Hidden Letters and Messages in Bismillah Al-Rahman Al-Rahim, Islamic Mystical Literature: Initiation and Prophecies of Djehuiti, Thoth, or Hermes and Atum

Hyam or Ham people, Shang, Chinese, Mandarin

Hyam or Ham People

Who are the Ham people in Nigeria? The Ham people are an ethnic group in the southern part of Kaduna State in the northwestern region of Nigeria, predominantly in Jaba, Kachia and Kagarko Local Government Areas Kaduna State Nigeria. They speak the Hyam language and refer to themselves as Ham.

Map of  North-western Nigeria

Hyam is a regionally notable linguistic cluster of Plateau languages in Nigeria. Hyam of Nok is the prestige dialect. Hyam Language Groups of Nigeria consist of Shang or Shanga, Zhire, Kwoi, Mwaghavul and Jaba people. Language family: Niger-Congo languages

Dialects: Hyam of Nok; Sait; Dzar; Yaat; Ankum

Native speakers: 300,000 (2014)

Native to: Nigeria

Region: Kaduna State

The remarkable civilisation of the Nok was first discovered in 1928 when a wealth of unique terracotta artefacts was unearthed by tin miners in the southern part of Kaduna state in central Nigeria. Since then, extensive archaeological excavations and research into the Nok have revealed that they may have been the first complex civilisation in West Africa, existing from at least 900 BC until their mysterious disappearance in around 200 AD. 

Nok Sculptures 500 BCE

The Nokians were an extremely advanced society, with one of the most complex judicial systems of the time, and the earliest producers of life-sized terracotta in the Sub-Sahara. Archaeologists have also found stone tools, rock paintings, and iron implements, including fearsome spear points, bracelets, and small knives. But by far the most enigmatic and intriguing aspect of the Nok Culture were their Terracotta statues, described by the mémoire d'afrique, which houses a gallery of the statues, as “extraordinary, astonishing, ageless, timeless and almost extraterrestrial”.

Judicial System, court, Priest, Chief: It is a known fact that the Nok’s judicial system pre-dates the Western judicial system. The Nok people created classes of courts used for adjudicating cases from minor civil cases, such as family disputes and false allegations, to criminal cases such as stealing, murder, and adultery.

The people believed that every crime attracts a curse which was capable of destroying the whole family and therefore must be uncovered to avoid the consequences.

The suspect was brought before an open court for traditional oath-taking, which involved standing between two monoliths facing the sun, the supreme god called Nom. The suspect then swore to tell the truth. Cases that cannot be resolved in the open court are taken to the high court which sits within an enclosed shrine.

Shang, Shanga or Shangawa Tribe

The affinities in words and their meaning between the Shang people of Kaduna State, Nigeria, and Chinese Mandarin, is uncanny. The Shanga, or Shangawa, live on the banks and islands of the Niger River near the city of Shanga in northwestern Nigeria. Shanga district is in the Yauri division of Sokoto state, an area they shared with the Hausa people. As a result, the Shanga tribe bend to the will of the more powerful Hausa.

A Woman from the Ham Tribe

The Shanga are an offshoot of the Kengawa people, with whom they comprised a part of the Songhai Empire from the thirteenth to sixteenth centuries. Moroccan invasions in the sixteenth century, however, forced the Shanga to relocate to Yauri as a place of refuge. Invaders and slave raids caused the Shanga to retreat to their present-day location on the islands of the Niger River.

The Shanga still speak the Kengawa language from the Niger-Benue division of the Niger-Congo language family. Therefore, they are linguistically related to the other groups in the area, such as the Dukawa, Reshe, and Kanberi.

Shang Words Vs Chinese Mandarin Fig 1

Shang Words Vs Chinese Mandarin Words

We will provide a few examples from annotated wordlist of the Shang language, spoken in Kushampa village in Kaduna State, Nigeria. On the 11th of May 2009, Roger Blench, with the assistance of Barau Kato and Rev. Danjuma Ndaka, collected the word list from a group of villagers in Kushampa. 

There is no previous record of the existence of this language. Mr John Y. Jatau was the main informant. The wordlist collected was a ‘one-shot’ exercise, and the transcription must be preliminary. The analysis prepared by Roger Blench added the comparative observations.

Shang Words Vs Chinese Mandarin Fig 2

Egusi (Yoruba: ẹ̀gúsí, Igbo: ègwusi), also known as agusi, ohue, Ikpan, Ikon, agushi or mbíka), is the name for the protein-rich seeds of certain cucurbitaceous plants (squash, melon, gourd), which, after being dried and ground, are used as a specific ingredient in West African cuisine.

Are Chinese descendants of an African Eve?

Professor Jin Li of the Research Center of Contemporary Anthropology at Shanghai Fudan University (RCCASFU) says he has proven modern Chinese people originated in Africa. His research, based on DNA testing techniques which have transformed the study of human evolution, supports the global scientific consensus that all modern humans are descendants of people who migrated from Africa tens of thousands of years ago. 

Shang Words Vs Chinese Mandarin Fig 3

However, archaeologists spent decades studying the fossil remains of ancient populations of hominids that lived in China long before the African migrants arrived. 

What happened to these early humans, were they killed off by the newcomers? 

Maybe the two populations interbred, and would that help explain some puzzling physical differences between modern East Asians and people in Africa and elsewhere? Some Chinese archaeologists defended a multi-regional theory of human evolution, despite the DNA evidence. In which different populations in the world evolved from local hominids independently.

Ham People during a Festival

Professor Jin published his first research in 2001. He was not the first to reach similar conclusions. In 1987 the New Zealanders Allan Charles Wilson and Rebecca Cann published a study of mitochondrial DNA that supported the African Eve theory – that all human beings living today are descendants of a single woman who lived in Africa around 200,000 years ago. According to Wilson and Cann, descendants of this African Eve migrated around the world and later evolved into the different varieties of modern humans.

Black People in a Chinese Painting Fig 4

Since then, more and more genetic evidence has accumulated,  supporting the view that modern humans, including Chinese people, originated from a single population from Africa. In 1998, Chinese scientist Chu Jiayou and his team analyzed the DNA microsatellites (also known as simple sequence repeats) of northern and southern Chinese, both those of Han and ethnic minorities. Chu concluded that the ancestors of the modern Chinese had migrated to China from Africa via South Asia.

As the mutation rate of DNA microsatellites is high, it is not the best method for researching ancient human migration and the evolution process. Su Bing and other researchers from the Kunming Institute of Zoology proposed an alternative approach using single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) in the Y-chromosome (Y-SNP). It was the approach by Prof. Jin Li and associate professor Li Hui.

Linguistic Evidence of the Chronological Stratification of the Populations South of Lake Chad

Megatchad Instituto Orientale, Napoli 

Black People in a Chinese Painting Fig 5

Roger Blench 

Kay Williamson Educational Foundation 

8, Guest Road 

Cambridge CB1 2AL 

United Kingdom 

Voice/Ans 0044-(0)1223-560687 

Mobile worldwide (00-44)-(0)7967-696804 

E-mail rogerblench@yahoo.co.uk 

http://www.rogerblench.info/RBOP.htm

Education and Indoctrination

Let us continue by exploring the thesis of perception deception. The definition of perception deception is the distortion and disorientation of our minds through education and indoctrination. The tools utilised are nature, nurture, media, education, profession and religion. We are what we consume physically and mentally. If we consume too much junk food, it will have a terrible effect on our physical health. However, in the case of mental health, it is even worse.

Most of the available descriptions of ancient historical figures produced in medieval Europe are Caucasians, regardless of the geographical origin of the subject. However, there are depictions of different natures of these historical figures. Books: 

Black People in a Chinese Painting Fig 6

The Image of the Black in Western Art, Volume 2: From the Early Christian Era to the Age of Discovery, Part 1: From the Demonic Threat to the Incarnation of Sainthood; edited by David Bindman, Henry L Gates, and Karen C Dalton; Belknap Press of Harvard University Press 2010, page 36. Modern Commentators on history confirmed the existence of this Babylonian Black King but conveniently forgot to state why he was black.

Some of these commentators even referred to this Black King as an infidel. According to the French navigator Francois Pyrard de Laval, based on the adventurer's travels around 1600 AD, he stated: The people of Ormus are as black as the Moors of Ethiopia and nowise resemble the Persians, who are fairer.

However, such a description of a Black Babylonian King is only about two hundred and fifty years old. Marco Polo was concurrent with the manuscript, and the 17th chapter of his adventure also described the people of Hormuz as black or dark, depending on the translator. Ronald Latham's translation, 1958, pages 66-67, used the word black. 

As far back as 1621 AD, the Italian traveller Pietro della Valle copied two or three lines from the cuneiform writing and reproduced it thirty-one years later. Book: The Archaeology of the Cuneiform Inscriptions by Archibald Henry Sayce,  Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge, 1907 AD, page 8.

Other Publications: King Solomon of Israel, Vs, Pharaoh, Amenemope The Immaculate Conception, an amazing deception Ifa, Sacred Geometry, Tetrahedron, Odu, Portals, Points The Baptismal Ceremony of The Gospel Of The Egyptians

To learn more: A Study Finds that Yorubas Are Genetically 99.9% Igbo. There is a true story behind the Zombie legends. Ogham line alphabets, African Origin. This video presentation concentrated on prehistoric and ancient cultures in Africa and elsewhere. Namely, Gabon, Zambia, Nigeria, Mali, Chad, Congo, Khem, South Africa and Ethiopia. Gnostic Bible, The 34 hidden letters and Messages in Bismillah Al-Rahman Al-Rahim, Islamic Mystical Literature: Initiation and Prophecies of Djehuiti, Thoth, or Hermes and Atum