Ancient Iran, Elam, Elamites, Khuzestan, Susa

Little is known of the cultures of Iran during the early Bronze ages. However, it is clear that during these early periods, the rugged broken landscape of the Iranian Plateau, forced man into a variety of relatively isolated cultures. These cultures did not participate in the developments that led to the full urbanised civilizations in Egypt and Mesopotamia to their west, or in the Indus Valley to their south.

Elam King

Elam city was contemporary with its neighbouring cultures in every way.

Here they had the same high level of civilization as their neighbours, with the same agriculture, the same architecture (the Elamites built Ziggurats too), and the same technology in mathematics and the sciences. Top left: Elam King holding a goat, 1400 B.C.E. The centre of Elam was (what is now) "Khuzestan".

Though geographically, Elam included more than Khuzestan, it was a combination of the lowlands, and the immediate highland areas to the north and east. The major cities of Elam were, Awan, Anshan, Simash, and Susa. Little is known of the cultures of Iran during the early Bronze ages.

However, it is clear that during these early periods, the rugged broken landscape of the Iranian Plateau, forced man into a variety of relatively isolated cultures. These cultures did not participate in the developments that led to the full urbanised civilizations in Egypt and Mesopotamia to their west, or in the Indus Valley to their south.

Elam city was contemporary with its neighbouring cultures in every way. Here they had the same high level of civilization as their neighbours, with the same agriculture, the same architecture (the Elamites built Ziggurats too), and the same technology in mathematics and the sciences. The centre of Elam was (what is now) "Khuzestan".

Though geographically, Elam included more than Khuzestan, it was a combination of the lowlands, and the immediate highland areas to the north and east. The major cities of Elam were,

Elamite Goddess

Awan, Anshan, Simash, and Susa. Bottom left: Alabaster Head of the African God Bess found in Persepolis. Susa later became Elam's capital. In the earliest times, the king was required to live in Susa, which functioned as the federal capital.

With him ruled his brother closest in age (the viceroy), who usually had his seat of government in the native city of the currently ruling king. This viceroy was heir presumptive to the king. Right: Moulded clay brick panel showing an Elamite Goddess: Wall ornament of the temple of Inshushinak at Susa 2000 BCE, Louvre museum, France.

Elam's strength was based on it's ability to hold these various areas together, under a coordinated government that permitted the maximum interchange of natural resources that were unique to each region. (Elam was, as Afghanistan is today, the worlds major source of lapis Lazuli, which was greatly prized). Traditionally this was done through a federated government structure. Closely related to this form of government, was the Elamite system of inheritance and power distribution. The normal pattern of government for Elam was that of a king or overlord, ruling over vassal princes.

In the earliest times, the king was required to live in Susa, which functioned as the federal capital. With him ruled his brother closest in age (the viceroy), who usually had his seat of government in the native city of the currently ruling king. This viceroy was heir presumptive to the king.

 Yet a third official, the regent or prince of Susa (the district), shared power with the king and the viceroy. He was usually the kings son, or if no son was available, his nephew.

On the death of the king, the viceroy became king. The prince of Susa remained in office, and the brother of the old viceroy nearest to him in age became the new viceroy. Only if all brothers were dead, was the prince of Susa promoted to viceroy, thus enabling the king to name his own son (or nephew), as the new prince of Susa. Left: Ancient Fars - Pottery from Bakum 4500 BCE.

Such a complicated system of governmental checks, balances, and power inheritance, often broke down, despite bilateral descent and levirate marriage, ( the compulsory marriage of a widow to her deceased husband's brother). What is remarkable is how often the system did work;

 it was only in the Middle and Neo-Elamite periods that sons more often succeeded fathers to power. The Elamite people were closely tied, culturally and otherwise, to Mesopotamia. Later, perhaps because of domination by the Akkadian dynasty (2334-2154 BC), Elamites adopted the Sumerian-Akkadian system of writing (the cuneiform script). Right: African design of the Susa bowl - 4000 BCE.

Elamite rule was broken when King Susuda of Kish defeated the Elamites. There soon appeared a new ruling house in Elam, the Simash dynasty, (Simash may have been in the mountains of southern Luristan). The most notable event of this period, was the virtual conquest of Elam by King Shulgi of the 3rd dynasty of Ur (2094–2047 BC). Eventually the Elamites rose in rebellion, and overthrew the 3rd Ur dynasty, an event long remembered in Mesopotamian dirges and omen texts.

At about 1900 B.C, power in Elam passed to a new dynasty, that of Eparti. The third king of this line "Shirukdukh" was active in various military coalitions against the rising power of Babylon, but Hammurabi (1792–1750 B.C.) was not to be denied, and Elam was crushed in 1764 B.C.

Elamite God Bes

 The Old Babylon kingdom however, fell into rapid decline following the death of Hammurabi, and it was not long before the Elamites were able to gain revenge.

Elamite king "Kutir-Nahhunte I" attacked Samsuiluna (1749–1712 B.C.) Hammurabi's son, and dealt so serious a defeat to the Babylonians that the event was remembered more than 1,000 years later in an inscription of the Assyrian king Ashurbanipal.

It may be assumed that with this stroke Elam once again gained independence. The end of the Eparti dynasty, which may have come in the late 16th century B.C, is buried in silence.

Two nude figures squat on the bronze slab, one knee bent to the ground. One of the figures holds out open hands to his companion who prepares to pour the contents of a lipped vase onto them. The scene takes place in a stylized urban landscape, with reduced-scale architectural features: a tiered tower or ziggurat flanked with pillars, a temple on a high terrace. There is also a large jar resembling the ceramic pithoi decorated with rope motifs that were used to store water and liquid foodstuffs. An arched stele stands by some rectangular basins.

Rows of dots in relief may represent solid foodstuffs on altars, and jagged sticks represent trees.

 The men's bodies are delicately modeled, their faces clean-shaven, and their shaved heads speckled with the shadow of the hair.

Their facial expression is serene, their eyes open, the hint of a smile on their lips. An inscription tells us the name of the piece's royal dedicator and its meaning in part: "I Shilhak-Inshushinak, son of Shutruk-Nahhunte, beloved servant of Inshushinak, king of Anshan and Susa [...], I made a bronze sunrise."

The context of this work found on the Susa acropolis is unclear.

Elamite sky God

 It may have been reused in the masonry of a tomb, or associated with a funerary sanctuary. It appears to be related to Elamite practices that were brought to light by excavations at Chogha Zambil.

This site houses the remains of a secondary capital founded by the Untash-Napirisha dynasty in the 14th century BC, some ten kilometers east of Susa (toward the rising sun).

The sacred complex, including a ziggurat and temples enclosed within a precinct, featured elements on the esplanade, rows of pillars and altars. A "funerary palace," with vaulted tombs, has also been found there.

Sixteenth Egyptian Dynasty 1650 - 1550 BCE

The sixteenth dynasty of ancient Egypt (notated Dynasty XVI) was a dynasty of pharaohs that ruled in Upper Egypt for 50 years during the Second Intermediate Period (1650 - 1550 BCE), a period that saw the division of Upper and Lower Egypt between the pharaohs at Thebes and the Hyksos kings at Avaris. The continuing war against Dynasty XV dominated the short-lived Dynasty XVI. The armies of Dynasty XV, winning town after town from their southern enemies, continually encroached on Dynasty XVI, eventually threatening and then conquering Thebes itself. Famine, which had plagued Upper Egypt during late Dynasty XIII and Dynasty XIV, also blighted Dynasty XVI, most evidently in the reign of Neferhotep III.
XVI Egyptian Dynasty 1650 - 1550 BCE Djehuti/Sekhemre Sementawy 1649 BCE
Sobekhotep VIII/Sekhemre Sementawy 1645 BCE
Neferhotep III/Sekhemre Sementawy 1629 BCE
Mentuhotep VI/Sankhenre 1628 BCE
Nebiryraw I/Sewadjenre 1627 BCE
Nebiriau II/Neferkare? 1601 BCE
Bebiankh/Seuserenre 1600 BCE
Shedwast/Sekhemre 1588 BCE
Dudimose I/Djedhetepre
Dudimose II/Djedneferre
Montemsaf/Djedankhre
Mentuhotep VI/Merankhre

Djehuti, Djehuty or Thuty was a pharaoh of Ancient Egypt dating to the Second Intermediate period. Djehuti's prenomen, Sekhemre Sementawy, means "The Power of Re who Establishes the Two Lands." It is thought that he was succeeded by Sobekhotep VIII. Djehuti may have been a part of the Theban 16th dynasty based in Upper Egypt. He reigned for ca. 3 years after around 1650 BC according to Kim Ryholt. An argument in favor of a dating to the 17th dynasty comes from the discovery of the tomb of his wife Mentuhotep's burial in Dra' Abu el-Naga' which is usually associated with the 17th dynasty. But others such as Bennett have pointed out that this does not necessarily mean that King Djehuty was buried in Dra' Abu el-Naga' as well.

Sekhemre Susertawi Sobekhotep VIII was an Egyptian king during the 16th or 17th Theban dynasty of Egypt and is believed to be the successor of Djehuti according to Kim Ryholt. He reigned over Upper Egypt during the time of the Hyksos conquest of Memphis and Lower Egypt. A stela found at Karnak dated to the epagomenal or final 5 days of his Fourth regnal year describes his attempts to preserve the temple here from damage by a massive Nile flood. He enjoyed a reign of 16 years according to the Turin Canon and was succeeded by Neferhotep III.

Sekhemre Sankhtawy Neferhotep III was the third or fourth ruler of the Theban 16th Dynasty after Djehuti and Sobekhotep VIII according to Ryholt. He is assigned a reign of 1 year in the Turin Canon and is known primarily by a single document from Thebes. Von Beckerath dates Neferhotep III to the end of the Thirteenth dynasty of Egypt. In the stela from Thebes, Neferhotep III repeatedly calls Thebes "my city" and praises himself as "The guide of victorious Thebes." The stela is thought to be the first depiction of the Khepresh crown. Neferhotep is said to be "Adorned with the Khepresh, the living image of Re, lord of terror". After his short reign, he was succeeded by king Mentuhotep VI.

Sankhenre Mentuhotep VI was a Pharaoh of Egypt of the 16th or 17th Theban dynasty based in Upper Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period. He was the successor of Neferhotep III and is assigned a reign of 1 year in the Turin Canon. Mentuhotep VI is attested by a single stela from Thebes. In this document, Mentuhotep VI emphatically states: "I am the king within Thebes, this is my city." His predecessor was Sekhemre Sankhtawy Neferhotep III. Mentuhotep VI himself was succeeded by Nebiryraw I who ruled Upper Egypt for more than 25 years.

Sewadjenre Nebiryraw or Nebiryerawet I was a pharaoh of Egypt of the 16th or 17th Theban dynasty based in Upper Egypt during the Second intermediate period. Nebiryraw I reigned for 26 years according to the Turin Canon and was succeeded by Nebiriau II who may have been his son.
All the published seals of Nebiriau I were made of clay or frit rather than steatite which implies there were no mining expeditions dispatched to the Eastern Desert region of Egypt during his reign. Two seals of this king were found at Lisht deep in Hyksos territory which might imply diplomatic contact between the Theban dynasty and the Hyksos during Nebiriau I's reign, although this is uncertain. A small stela showing the king in front of Maat is part of the Egyptian collection located in Bonn. His prenomen "Sewadjenre" means "The One whom Re causes to flourish.

Nebiriau II or Nebiryerawet was a king of the 16th or 17th Theban dynasty who ruled Upper Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period of Ancient Egypt. He is commonly assumed by some Egyptologists to be the son of Sewadjenre Nebiriau I, his predecessor given the rarity of the name Nebiriau in Egyptian historical sources. Unlike his presumed father who ruled Upper Egypt for 26 years, he was an obscure king who is completely unattested by contemporary archaeological sources. Nebiriau II was succeeded by an equally obscure king named Semenre who is attested by a single axe - inscribed his prenomen - and then by Seuserenre Bebiankh who is given 12 years in the Turin Canon.

Seuserenre Bebiankh was a native Ancient Egyptian king of the 16th Theban dynasty during the Second Intermediate Period and the successor of king Semenre. He is assigned a reign of 12 years in the Turin Canon. Seuserenre is principally known by a stela found at Gebel Zeit that attests to mining activity conducted in this area by the Red Sea during his reign and preserves his royal nomen Bebiankh. He is also known to have an extension to the Temple of Medamud. He was succeeded by a poorly known king named Sekhemre Shedwast.

Sekhemre Shedwast (Sekhemreshedwaset) was a native Ancient Egyptian king of the 16th Theban dynasty during the Second Intermediate Period and the successor of king Bebiankh. It has been suggested, but not universally accepted, that Sekhemre Shedwast may be identical to Sekhemre-shedtawi Sobekemsaf I. If so, he may have been married to Queen Nubkhaes II and they may have had a son named Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef.

Djedhetepre Dudimose I was an Egyptian king of the Second Intermediate Period. He is mentioned on stela found at Edfu belonging to a king's son and commander Khonsemwaset. It is not known whether the latter was the son of the king, as king's son was a title not only given to the actual children of a king. There is another king with the name Dedumose II. It is possible that he was the son of Dedumose I. There are also some objects naming a king Dedumose, without providing a second name. K. S. B. Ryholt: The Political Situation in Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period, c. 1800 - 1550 BC.

Dedumose II was a native Ancient Egyptian king of the 16th Theban dynasty during the Second Intermediate Period. His Horus name was Djedneferre. Williams and other place Dedumose as the last king of Egypt's 13th Dynasty. Precise dates for Dudimose are unknown, but according to the commonly-accepted Egyptian chronology his reign probably ended around 1690 BC. Attempts have been made to link Dedumose to the story of Tutimaios, his conflict with the Hyksos, and his fall as told by the ancient Egyptian chronicler Manetho, whose history survives in fragments in Josephus, Africanus, and Eusebius. But the link between Dedumose and Tutimaios is tenuous at best and not supported by linguistic (Tutimaios is more likely derived from Djehutymose) or historical facts.

Djedankhre Montemsaf (Montuemsaf) was a native Ancient Egyptian king of the 16th Theban dynasty during the Second Intermediate Period. King Djedankhre Montemsaf is known from inscriptions in Gebelein and Edfu. Merankhre Mentuhotep VI: No information available.

Fifteenth Egyptian Dynasty 1650 - 1550 BCE

The Fifteenth, Sixteenth and Seventeenth Dynasties of ancient Egypt are often combined under the group title, Second Intermediate Period. The Fifteenth Dynasty dates approximately from 1650 to 1550 BCE. The Fifteenth Dynasty of Egypt was the first Hyksos dynasty, ruled from Avaris, without control of the entire land. The Hyksos preferred to stay in northern Egypt since they infiltrated from the north-east. The names and order of kings is uncertain. The Turin Kinglist indicates that there were six Hyksos kings, with an obscure Khamudi listed as the final king of the Fifteenth Dynasty. (line X.21 of the cited web link clearly provides this summary for the dynasty: "6 kings functioning 100+X years.") The surviving traces on the X figure appears to give the figure 8 which suggests that the summation should be read as 6 kings ruling 108 years.

The Hyksos were an Asiatic people who took over the eastern Nile Delta during the twelfth dynasty, initiating the Second Intermediate Period of ancient Egypt. The Hyksos first appeared in Egypt during the eleventh dynasty, began their climb to power in the thirteenth dynasty, and came out of the second intermediate period in control of Avaris and the Delta. By the fifteenth dynasty, they ruled Lower Egypt, and at the end of the seventeenth dynasty, they were expelled. <> Some scholars argue there were two Apophis kings named Apepi I and Apepi II, but this is primarily due to the fact there are two known prenomens for this king: Awoserre and Aqenenre.

However, the Danish Egyptologist Kim Ryholt maintains in his study of the Second Intermediate Period that these prenomens all refer to one man: Apepi I who ruled Egypt for 40+X years. This is also supported by the fact that this king employed a third prenomen during his reign: Nebkhepeshre. Apophis likely employed several different prenomens throughout various periods of his reign. This scenario is not unprecedented since later kings including the famous Ramesses II and Seti II are known to have used two different prenomens in their own reign.
XV Egyptian Dynasty  1650 - 1550 BCE (Hyksos Vassals)

Apepi/Apophis

Salites
Beon
Sakir-Har
Apkhnas
Khaian
Apophis
Khamudi

Salitis was the first king of the Hyksos Fifteenth dynasty of Egypt, who began to rule Egypt around 1648 BC. The precise dates of his rule are unknown. Northern Egypt was controlled by Hyksos rulers throughout the Dynasty. The Hyksos were people of Semitic origin who were thought to have invaded Egypt through the Sinai Peninsula and settled in the Delta. Other scholars regard this as propaganda and instead consider that the Hyksos were elements of the local Semitic population of Lower Egypt who assumed control of lower Egypt when the 13th dynasty of Egypt collapsed.

The Hyksos controlled all the Nile Delta and Northern Egypt. Some scholars mention Salitis' name as "Sultan". This is an Arabic translation of the phrase 'powerful king' because the king was considered to be the founder of the first Hyksos dynasty. Salitis captured Memphis and placed himself in higher rank than any of the royal families in the city.

The obscure Hyksos king, Sakir-Har, was discovered in a recently excavated door jamb from Tell el-Dab'a of Ancient Egypt by Manfred Bietak. His titulary (Nebti and Golden Falcon names, as well as his nomen) appear on door jamb, Cairo TD-8316. A door jamb confirms the identity of Sakir-Har as one of the first three kings of the Hyksos Fifteenth dynasty of Egypt. His immediate successor would have been the powerful Hyksos ruler, Khyan, if he was the third Hyksos king of this dynasty, but Sakir-Har's precise position within this dynasty has not yet been established. The name Sakir-Har translates as 'Reward of Har.'

Apepi or Apophis was a ruler of Lower Egypt during the fifteenth dynasty and the end of the Second Intermediate Period that was dominated by this foreign dynasty of rulers called the Hyksos. According to the Turin King List, he ruled over the northern portion of Egypt for forty years, and would have ruled during the early half of the 16th century (BCE) if he outlived his southern rival, Kamose, but not Ahmose I. Although his reign only entailed northern Egypt, Apepi was dominant over most of Egypt during the early portion of his reign, and traded peacefully with the native, Theban Seventeenth dynasty to the south. While he may have exerted suzerainty over Upper Egypt during the beginning of his reign, the seventeenth dynasty eventually assumed control over this region, and the Hyksos were driven out of Egypt no more than fifteen years after his death.

Neb-Khepesh-Re, A-Qenen-Re, and A-User-Re are three praenomina or throne names used by this same ruler during various parts of his reign.While some Egyptologists once believed that there were two separate kings who bore the name Apepi, namely Auserre Apepi and Aqenenre Apepi, it is now recognized that Khamudi succeeded Apepi I at Avaris and that there was only one king named Apepi or Apophis. Nebkhepeshre or "Re is the Lord of Strength" was Apepi's first prenomen; towards the middle of his reign, this Hyksos ruler adopted a new prenomen, Aqenenre, which translates as "The strength of Re is great." In the final decade or so of his reign, Apepi chose Auserre as his last prenomen. While the prenomen was altered, there is no difference in the translation of both Aqenenre and Auserre.

Khamudi (also known as Khamudy) was the last pharaoh of the Hyksos fifteenth dynasty of Egypt, who came to power in the northern portion of Egypt. The Year 11 date in the Rhind Mathematical Papyrus is now believed by many Egyptologists to belong to his reign since it refers to Ahmose as "He of the South." Another date on the papyrus is explicitly dated to Year 33 of Khamudi's predecessor Apophis. It is generally believed that Ahmose defeated the Hyksos king by his 18th or 19th year. This is suggested by "a graffito in the quarry at Tura whereby 'oxen from Canaan' were used at the opening of the quarry in Ahmose's regnal year 22."

Since the cattle could only have been brought after Ahmose's 3 year long siege of the South Canaanite town of Sharuhen which followed after the fall of Avaris, this means the reign of Khamudi must have terminated by Year 18 or 19 of Ahmose's 25 year reign at the very latest. The Hyksos were a foreign line of rulers who invaded Egypt and ruled for several generations before this defeat by Ahmose a native ruler from Thebes, who drove them from Egypt at that time.

Book of Coming Forth by Day: The Spells of Coming Forth by Day

The beginning of the spells of coming forth by day of exalting and glorifying, of coming forth and going down into the underworld, and speaking spells of power in beautiful Amentet.

 To be said, on the day of the funeral, entering in, after coming forth. Words spoken by the Osiris Ani, the Osiris scribe Ani:

Homage to you, Bull of Amentet.Says Thoth, king of eternity with me,
I am the great god at the side of the boat. I have fought for you; I am one of these gods of the Council who justified Osiris against his enemies on the day of the weighing of words.

I belong to your people, Osiris; I am one of these gods born of Nut, who slays the enemies of Osiris and imprisons the demons on his behalf.
I belong to your people, Horus; I have fought for you; I have travelled for the sake of your name.
I am Thoth who justified Osiris against his enemies on the day of the weighing of words in the great House of the Prince in Heliopolis.

I am Djedi, the son of Djedi, conceived with me in Busiris; I was born in Busiris.

I am with the mourners and wailing women of Osiris in the Lands of the Sisters, justifying Osiris against his enemies.
Ra has decreed that Thoth justify Osiris against his enemies; Thoth has done what was decreed for me.
I am with Horus on the day of clothing the statue of Osiris, opening the caverns for the washing of the Still of Heart, and unbolting the opening of the Seshit shrine in Re-Staw.
I am with Horus on the day of the festival of Osiris, making offerings on the sixth day of the Quarter Moon Festival in Heliopolis.

The Ark

I am he who sees the mysteries in Re-Staw; I am the reader of the festival-book of the soul in Busiris.
I am the Sem-priest in his duties.
I am the chief priest of Ptah on the day of placing the the Boat of Seker on its sledge; I receive the plow on the day of plowing the earth. O offering-bearers of the perfected soul sin the house of Osiris, bring near the perfected soul of the Osiris Ani, the true of voice, with you to the house of Osiris,

May he hear you; may he see as you see; may he stand as you stand; may he sit as you sit.
O givers of bread and drink to the perfected souls in the house of Osiris give bread and drink at the times of morning and evening to the soul of the Osiris Ani, true of voice before all the gods of Abydos, true of voice with you.
O openers of the way, openers of the roads for the perfected souls in the house of Osiris, open then the way, open then the roads for the soul of the Osiris scribe and accountant of the offerings of all the gods, Ani, with you.

May he enter in might and come forth in peace in the house of Osiris;
May he not be driven back; may he not be turned away;
May he enter with honour; may he come forth as he desires.
May his voice be true in making his commands in the house of Osiris; may his words go with you; may he be glorious with you.
No sin is found there; the balance is empty of the case.